“One in Eight or One in Twelve”
In January 1639, the Virginia colonial assembly argued: “all persons except negroes [were] to be provided with arms and ammunition or be fined at pleasure of the Governor and Council.” [1] For much of early American history, this concept was maintained throughout the colonies, despite integrated units engaging British troops on American Revolutionary War battlefields. As such, life for blacks in early American society proved to be arduous. Northern attitude toward freed and enslaved blacks, in spite of growing support for emancipation, was one of distrust and trepidation. In essence, fear of slave revolts akin to those occurring across the south perpetuated the mistreatment and segregation of blacks.
Jean- Baptiste-Antoine DeVerger - Soldiers at the siege of Yorktown, including 1st Rhode Island Regiment soldier, 1781
During the late 18th to early 19th centuries, scores of free blacks made their way to northern cities like Philadelphia and Boston in search of better opportunities. While shocking to some, many chose seafaring occupations rather than “menial” [3] land-based jobs typically relegated to blacks. This is not to say that discrimination ended at the gangways of ships as Historian W. Jeffery Bolster contends, “race never disappeared aboard ships, of course…although certain roles aboard reinforced racial stereotypes imported from shore, most seafaring customs worked to the black man’s advantage.” [4] In addition to this, things like pay were based on merit rather than skin color. Furthermore, living quarters, messing, and work stations were typically shared with white counterparts.
Looking within our state’s borders, Pennsylvania’s “other” port, Philadelphia, was considered, “the largest port in North America” [5] in the early nineteenth century. Astonishingly, approximately one-fifth of the population were seafarers. Historian and author Gene Smith writes, “17 to 22 percent of seafaring jobs” were held by blacks “even though they made up only some 5 percent of the region’s population”. [6] While merchant jobs were bountiful, a black seaman in search of gainful employment in the United States Navy was hard to come by. In 1798, Secretary of the Navy, Benjamin Stoddert, and US Secretary of War James McHenry forbid black enlistments in the United States Navy. [7]
Upon declaration of war in June 1812, it became apparent that manpower shortages would plague American naval vessels. Smith argued, “once the [war] began and the conflict spread to the northern lakes and the oceans…the U.S. government, privateers, and merchantmen all found themselves short of sailors, creating new opportunities for black mariners.” [8] Regulations were enacted to bar blacks from naval service however, recruitment for ships was placed on the shoulders of recruitment officers. In the days before steam-power, ships were powered via sails and muscle. Aside from constructing fleets capable of contending with the powerful Royal Navy, the U.S. struggled to compete with manpower issues - something that would frustrate Oliver Hazard Perry in the months following his arrival to Erie in the Spring of 1813.
Rather unfortunate for us today, it is not exactly known how many sailors in the War of 1812 naval service were non-white. This is due to rolls neglecting to document race rather, maritime proficiency was preferred. This is true of ships like the USS Constitution and, of course, the squadron at Presque Isle. Retired Site Administrator and former captain of the current version of Brig Niagara, Walter Rybka laments, “it is known that many of Perry’s squadron were black, but just how many cannot be determined.” [10] We do have estimates from some who were there, including Surgeon’s Mate, Usher Parsons who recalled in his later years, “one in eight or one in twelve [sailors] were black”. [11] Black sailors served in the Atlantic, the Great Lakes, and the Southern theaters of war. Rybka continues, “those who served at Lake Erie…were probably among the more experienced seaman from the prewar regular navy and thus made a significant contribution to the campaign”. [12]
“Black Tars” - Black Sailor in the Royal Navy’s “lower decks”
Aside from figures, what is more intriguing to historians like myself is the question of life aboard vessels like Niagara or Lawrence. In his book Amongst My Best Men: African Americans and the War of 1812, National Park Service historian Gerald Altoff writes, “varying degrees of racism and were denied unconstrained liberty and equality because of their color”. [13] While blacks served aboard naval and merchant vessels during this period of time, none were considered “officers”. Furthermore, records from the period indicate that some messes [14] aboard ships like USS Constellation were segregated. [15] It should be noted, this was not to say that black sailors were treated like this across the board. It was the norm to see sailors of all races taking part in daily activities and all facets of life aboard ships.
W. Jeffery Bolster cites a specific example of this. “Relationships between black and white sailors were shaped by specific circumstances of the seafaring workplace…at sea black and white sailors faced down the same captains, weathered the same gales, and pumped the same infernally leaking ships.” He continues, “an inexperienced white sailor in the Bahamas who lack the knack for making fishing lines readily admitted his reliance on “old Negro on board of our schooner” who taught him to “soak the laves of the Coritoo or the Alo and work it into fibers”. [16]
USS Constitution Museum’s Lauren McCormack writes of the culture aboard ships:
Occasionally, whites and blacks participated together in dancing and boxing matches. Though they produced separate theatrical events, whites and blacks attended each other’s productions. As one white prisoner, Benjamin Waterhouse, recorded, “however extraordinary it may appear,” white inmates took fencing, boxing, music, and dancing lessons from black inmates, while other whites, seeking to avoid their own instances of harassment chose to live with the otherwise segregated blacks. [17]
When it pertains to the Lake Erie squadron, not much is actually known about the quality of life aboard these vessels. In the Spring of 1813, the United States government began to take measures to repeal the policy that barred blacks from naval service making it so, “from and after the termination of the war in which the United States are now engaged with Great Britain it shall not be lawful to employ on board any of the public or private vessels of the United States any person or persons except citizens of the United States or persons of color, natives of the U. States”. [18]
In closing, perhaps one of the most iconic quotes regarding blacks in the service of the American Navy during the War of 1812 is attributed to Captain Isaac Hull, USS Constitution, who wrote, “I never had any better fighters than those [black men], they stripped to the waist and fought like devils…seeming to be utterly insensible to danger and to be possessed with the determination to outfight the white sailors.” [19] It is apparent that blacks, like their native counterparts, had many decisions to make during the War of 1812 regarding allegiances. Many chose to flee to Canada and fight on the side of the British while others chose to gamble their future on the young republic. Despite fighting “like devils” for their prescribed “causes”, the War of 1812 did not bring free and enslaved blacks the freedom they desired. In closing, please continue reading below as we introduce three Black sailors who served in Oliver Hazard Perry’s Lake Erie squadron and recognize their contributions to our shared history. #BlackHistoryMonth
PROFILES FROM O.H. PERRY’S FLEET:
Jesse Williams:
Born in Pennsylvania in 1772, Jesse Williams enlisted aboard the USS Constitution in August 1812. He saw action aboard "Old Ironsides" against the likes of HMS Guerriere and HMS Java. Eventually, in 1813, he was transferred to the Great Lakes to serve under Oliver Hazard Perry. At the Battle of Lake Erie, he served on the US Brig Lawrence and could be counted among those wounded at the battle's conclusion. Due to his service against the British squadron at Put-In-Bay, he was awarded $214.89 in prize money and eventually, in 1820, a silver medal by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
Because of his actions, Pennsylvania lawyer Peter Sprout wrote the following letter to Governor Joseph Hiester:
To his Excellency the Governor of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania at Harrisburg or the Secretary of the Commonwealth.
Phila. July 4th, 1820
Sir,
I enclose you the Letter of Attorney of Jesse Williams (a colored man) and one of the crews of the Lawrence in the Squadron commanded by Commodore Oliver H. Perry on Lake Erie at the memorable battle of the September 10, 1813, for to obtain the prize medal designed and ready kept being presented as one of the brave victors of Lake Erie by the generous and patriotic State of Pennsylvania.
Jesse Walls:
Jesse Walls served aboard the US Brig Niagara as a fifer during the Battle of Lake Erie. After the war, Walls settled in Erie with his wife Almira Blackstone, he passed away on July 27, 1866.
Jesse Walls’ burial plot, Erie Cemetery
Cyrus Tiffany:
Not much is known about his early life however, we know Cyrus was from Taunton, Massachusetts. It is believed that “Tiff” served in the American Revolutionary War as a fifer. Eventually, Tiffany traveled to Erie with Perry and sailed aboard the Brig Lawrence during the Battle of Lake Erie. It is said that Tiffany was ordered by Perry to prevent frightened sailors from escaping down below in the midst of the chaos. Beyond that, much of his life is unknown. In the collections of the Erie Maritime Museum is Cyrus’ original fife. While not on exhibit, it represents a story that needs to be told.
“old Tiffany” . . . is as an (sic) admirable player on the fife, and no one understood better the use of that fine martial instrument, and could give it more thrilling and eloquent expression.”
Cyrus Tiffany’s Fife - Donated by the descendants of John Gould Perry
Hening, ed., The Statutes at Large, vol. 1, p. 226
One of the greatest examples of a “Black Regiment” in the American Revolution comes in the form of the 1st Rhode Island. From 1775-78, Blacks were prohibited from serving in the Continental Army. On February 1778, Rhode Island pursued a recommendation proposed by General James M. Varnum to allow Blacks to join the ranks due to significant difficulties with recruitment. On February 14, 1778, the assembly allowed “every able-bodied negro, mulatto, or Indian man slave in this state to enlist into either of the Continental Battalions being raised”. Over the remainder of the war, it became an integrated unit as no more non-whites were permitted to enlist.
Lauren McCormack, “Black Sailors in the War of 1812,” ed. Kate Monea and Carl Herzog, Ussconstitutionmuseum.org, last modified 2005, accessed February 11, 2020, https://ussconstitutionmuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Black-Sailors-During-the-War-of-1812.pdf.
W. Jeffery Bolster, Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail (S.L.: Harvard University Press, 2007).
Philahistory. “Philadelphia's Rich Maritime History.” Philahistory.org. Last modified August 29, 2019. Accessed February 11, 2021. https://philahistory.org/2019/08/29/philadelphias-rich-maritime-history/.
Gene A. Smith, The Slaves' Gamble: Choosing Sides in the War of 1812 (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Walter P. Rybka, The Lake Erie Campaign of 1813: I Shall Fight Them This Day (Charleston, SC: History Press, 2012), 52.
John C. Fredriksen (ed.), Surgeon of the Lakes: the Diary of Dr. Usher Parsons, 1812-1814 (Erie, PA: Erie County Historical Society, 2000).
Rybka, 52.
Gerard T. Altoff, Amongst My Best Men: African-Americans and the War of 1812 (Put-in-Bay, OH: Perry Group, 1996).
A “mess” is where sailors would socialize, eat, and often sleep.
“Black Sailors in the War of 1812”, 11.
Bolster.
Ibid, 13.
Altoff, 20.
“Black Sailors in the War of 1812”, 13.