Causes of the War of 1812

The War of 1812 can be seen in the context of the much broader Napoleonic Wars - a series of conflicts that took place between a coalition of nations led by the British Empire against Napoleon Bonaparte and the French Empire. The War, which arose from a complex web of issues, had a lasting impact on both nations and played a crucial role in shaping the future of North America. Of the many “causes” cited by historians today, a few tend to be discussed more often including:

1. Impressment

2. Trade Disputes

3. Native American Conflict and Westward Expansion

4. Political and Diplomatic Failure

The most commonly attributed cause of the War of 1812 stems from maritime disputes - namely “impressment”. Great Britain was predominantly focused on mainland Europe during the turn of the 19th century. Following their decisive victory at the Battle of Trafalgar, Great Britain controlled the English Channel, forcing Napoleon to focus on the European Continent. In November 1806, France enacted the “Continental System” - a “large-scale embargo” against the British Empire. This embargo shut down all French-administered and client-state ports to British merchant vessels.

Napoleon decided that his path forward to continue his war effort was to subdue Britain’s economy and by ignoring a rebuild of his Navy (following the French/Spanish Navy’s defeat at Trafalgar). In capturing Prussia’s coastline after the Fall of Berlin, his plan continued to gain steam.

On January 6, 1807, Great Britain issued the “Orders-in-Council” Act of 1807, furthering the previous sets of Orders-in-Council by issuing an edict to not trade with any French merchants and informing the Royal Navy to blockade French and allied ports. The crux of the issue was the last part of the order which allowed British authorities to check and/or seize military supplies that could be forwarded to aid France and their allies. This, in turn, harmed American commerce as the young republic was considered neutral in the conflict, and their commerce was restricted by a war taking place between Napoleon and European nations.

Maintaining a blockade required many hands which resulted in many American citizens being pressed into service with the Royal Navy. This contentious practice, employed by the Royal Navy, involved forcibly conscripting American sailors to serve on British warships, essentially robbing them of their freedom and rights. Impressment was a serious violation of American sovereignty, leaving a bitter taste in the mouths of many citizens. British officers claimed the right to search American vessels, capturing sailors they suspected were British deserters. In doing so, they often seized individuals who were American-born or naturalized citizens, disregarding their nationality or allegiance. For years, this flagrant violation of American sovereignty festered, creating a growing swell of resentment. It not only undermined the pride and dignity of American sailors but also crippled maritime trade and strained diplomatic relations between the two nations.

As tensions mounted, incidents of impressment multiplied. In 1807, the HMS Leopard attacked the USS Chesapeake off the coast of Virginia in a blatant act of aggression, resulting in the death of three American sailors and the impressment of four more. Outraged, the American public clamored for retaliation. President James Madison attempted diplomacy, but British intransigence and continued impressment forced his hand. On June 18, 1812, the United States issued a declaration of war against Britain, denouncing its violations and seeking redress. The War of 1812 had begun, fueled by the rage and sense of injustice felt by a nation whose citizens were being press-ganged into battle Impressment became a rallying cry for the American populous, instilling a fierce determination to defend their rights and prove themselves a sovereign nation.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the United States was beginning to expand westward into the Ohio River valley. The British, with only a tiny population in Canada, did not wish to see the United States growing larger, perceiving a threat to their hold on Canada, and a potential ally of their great enemy France. The British supplied arms to a confederation of Indian tribes, united by the Shawnee chief Tecumseh, in the hope of having a buffer zone to block U.S. expansion. The U.S. frontier states, such as Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee, saw this as a direct threat to their existence, let alone growth. Brittish policy stopped short of inciting Indians to attack US Settlements. The continual influx of settlers into Indian lands was the root cause.

The U.S. frontiersmen completely agreed with John Quincy Adams’s l814 statement that it was absurd “to condemn vast regions of territory to perpetual barrenness that a few hundred savages might find wild beasts to hunt upon it.” The Indians were to be subdued and forced to modern ways or driven ever further to the West. To many Americans, Canada looked ripe for the taking as well, if only to free North America entirely of British influence.

The New England states, dependent upon seaborne trade, were very much against declaring war on the world’s greatest maritime power. Support for the war was loudest in the South and the West, whose freedom to expand was dependent upon removing both Native American and British influence from the interior of the continent. The War of 1812 was not a very popular war. The vote to declare war on England was 79 to 49 in the House and 19 to 13 in the Senate, along regional as well as party lines. The highest percentage of dissenting votes for any declaration of war in US history.

The United States was banking heavily on the fact that Great Britain was embroiled with France and could spare few resources to fight here. Her army was fighting Napoleon in Spain, and her fleet was trying to blockade most of Europe. Many legislators believed that declaring war alone would convince the British to cease seizing U.S. ships and men rather than have to divert effort from fighting France.

In fact, the “Orders in Council” (the English government’s policies that prompted the declaration of war) had been rescinded two days before the war was declared. But the news could only get across the Atlantic by sailing ship, and hostilities had begun before word reached Washington. In terms of relative power, a declaration of war against Great Britain was an extremely risky gamble for the fledgling U.S.

Americans have always had an aversion to maintaining large standing armies (at least until the end of WWII). On the naval side, an efficient fleet had been built to fight the Barbary Pirate states of North Africa at the beginning of the century but had been allowed to decay for lack of funds immediately after hostilities ceased in l807. The United States began the War of 1812 with a tiny and ill-prepared army and less than 20 effective warships versus the Royal Navy’s nearly 700, the overwhelming majority of which were committed to the war in Europe.

Importance of the Northwest Front

The war began very badly for the U.S. British troops and their Indian allies quickly captured U.S. outposts at Dearborn (now Chicago), Mackinac, and Detroit, leaving the entire Northwest frontier vulnerable. A U.S. invasion of Canada across the Niagara peninsula was beaten back. At the end of l812, the Northwestern frontier was largely under British control. The only bright spot in this dismal picture was that the U.S. Navy distinguished itself by winning 5 single ship actions during the first six months of the war. This achievement was due not only to the ardor and skill of the crews but also to the U.S. design philosophy of building maximum fighting power into the few ships we had. Our ships typically were larger and threw a much heavier broadside than the English ships they were fighting. However good these single-ship victories were for boosting U.S. morale, the real damage to the immense Royal Navy was negligible. To put this in perspective, in the preceding twenty years, the Royal Navy had fought hundreds of engagements against French, Spanish, and other European naval ships, and had won all but a handful of these. Large fleet actions had invariably been either a draw or a British victory.

Importance of “Sea Power” on the Frontier

In the Great Lakes region of that era, the surrounding lands were heavily wooded and roadless wilderness. The Lakes and rivers were the only viable transport routes for large quantities of men and supplies, as well as the fastest. The few land routes in the west were subject to raids by Natives allied with the British. Military control of the Lakes assured one side protection for its supply lines and denied it to the other side, placing a stranglehold on the enemy. By today’s standards, a sailing ship seems the most inefficient way to travel. To move at all, they were dependent upon the wind being of the right strength and from the right direction, and they had a top speed of 10 to 12 miles per hour. The average speed was more like 5. Yet this was the high technology of the age. Consider that troops with full packs could march at best 20 miles a day on good roads, much less over rough terrain. Nor could men carry many days’ supplies with them on a march. For that, horses and wagons were needed, which could only move a few tons a few miles per day and only in the few places where there was some excuse for a road. On the other hand, ships could move hundreds of men and hundreds of tons of supplies at a time, at speeds averaging one hundred miles per day. A ship could sail 24 hours a day and thus get far beyond where horses and men would have dropped from exhaustion. Even after waiting days for a fair wind, ships were still likely to get ahead of any army marching along the shore. Also, armies were just as weather-dependent in needing to wait out heavy rains, which made roads too muddy for wagons. For these reasons, control of the frontier was dependent upon having ships to move men and supplies and being able to protect those ships from the enemy.

The 12th US Congress Votes for War!

In June 1812, the United States Congress finally voted in favor of declaring war against Great Britain. The vote in both the House of Representatives and the Senate was extremely close, highlighting the deep divisions within the nation. The final decision was made by slim margins, with the war resolution passing 79 to 49 in the House and 19 to 13 in the Senate. The decision to go to war was not a unanimous or unifying one. The nation was divided not only between political factions but also regionally, with different states holding contrasting views on the necessity and consequences of war. The vote reflected the struggles of a young and disparate nation, grappling with complex issues of national sovereignty, economic interests, and conflicting visions for the country's future. The declaration of war set in motion a series of events that would shape the trajectory of the young republic. The conflict that followed tested the resilience and capabilities of the United States, challenging its military, economy, and political unity.

Image Credit: Peter Rindlisbacher

At the beginning of this conflict, there were notable differences in the size and strength of the American and British military forces. These differences played a crucial role in shaping the course of the war and its ultimate outcomes. In 1812, the United States had a relatively small and underdeveloped military when compared to the formidable British Empire. The American military was in the early stages of its development, having been downsized significantly after the American Revolutionary War. The U.S. Army consisted of a mere 7,000 regular soldiers, supported by state militias, which were often ill-equipped and untrained. The United States Navy, while growing in strength, was vastly outnumbered by the Royal Navy, the world's dominant naval force. The American Navy had just 16 warships, while the Royal Navy had over 600 ships, many of them warships of the line, which were formidable vessels of their time.

In contrast, Great Britain possessed a vast and experienced military machine. The British Army was a professional force with extensive combat experience, particularly due to their involvement in the Napoleonic Wars. At the beginning of the War of 1812, the British Army had over 250,000 men at its disposal, a stark contrast to the limited American forces. Furthermore, the Royal Navy was unparalleled, boasting immense resources and dominating the seas, which allowed Britain to effectively blockade American ports, limiting the United States' ability to engage in maritime trade.

The disparities in military size were evident not only in manpower and naval assets but also in the availability of resources and logistics. The British Empire had access to a vast network of supply lines, colonies, and a well-established military-industrial complex, whereas the United States had to build its military infrastructure from the ground up. However, despite these glaring discrepancies, the War of 1812 did not unfold as a one-sided conflict. The United States, despite its relatively small military, demonstrated a resolve and tenacity that surprised many, and it had some notable successes in the early stages of the war. American naval heroes like Oliver Hazard Perry and Isaac Hull scored important victories on the Great Lakes, and the U.S. Army, though limited in numbers, fought effectively in some engagements. Furthermore, the American privateer fleet harassed British shipping and disrupted their trade routes, causing economic strain.